optical

interferometer
instrument for making precise measurements for beams of light of such factors as length, surface irregularities, and index of refraction. It divides a beam of light into a number of beams that travel unequal paths and whose intensities, when reunited, add or subtract (interfere with each other). This interference appears as a pattern of light and dark bands called interference fringes. Information derived from fringe measurements is used for precise wavelength determinations, measurement of very small distances and thicknesses, the study of spectrum lines, and determination of refractive indices of transparent materials. In astronomy, interferometers are used to measure the distances between stars and the diameters of stars.
In 1881 the American physicist A.A. Michelson constructed the interferometer used in the Michelson-Morley experiment. The Michelson interferometer and its modifications are used in the optical industry for testing lenses and prisms, for measuring index of refraction, and for examining minute details of surfaces (microtopographies). The instrument consists of a half-silvered mirror that divides a light beam into two equal parts, one of which is transmitted to a fixed mirror and the other of which is reflected to a movable mirror. By counting the fringes created as the mirror is moved, the amount of movement can be precisely determined. Michelson also developed the stellar interferometer, capable of measuring the diameters of stars in terms of the angle, as small as 0.01″ of an arc, subtended by the extreme points of the star at the point of observation.
In 1896 the British physicist Lord Rayleigh described the Rayleigh interference refractometer, still widely used for determining the refractive indices of gases and liquids. It is a split-beam instrument, like the Michelson interferometer. One beam serves as a reference, while the other is passed first through a material of known index of refraction and then through the unknown. The index of refraction of the unknown can be determined by the displacement of its interference fringes from those of the known material.
The Fabry-Pérot interferometer (variable-gap interferometer) was produced in 1897 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Alfred Pérot. It consists of two highly reflective and strictly parallel plates called an etalon. Because of the high reflectivity of the plates of the etalon, the successive multiple reflections of light waves diminish very slowly in intensity and form very narrow, sharp fringes. These may be used to reveal hyperfine structures in line spectra, to evaluate the widths of narrow spectral lines, and to redetermine the length of the standard metre.

The Fizeau-Laurent surface interferometer (see Figure) reveals departures of polished surfaces from a plane. The system was described by the French physicist A.-H.-L. Fizeau in 1862 and adapted in 1883 into the instruments now widely used in the optical industry. In the Fizeau-Laurent system, monochromatic light (light of a single colour) is passed through a pinhole and illuminates a reference plane and a workpiece directly below it. The light beam is perpendicular to the workpiece. By maintaining a slight angle between the surface of the workpiece and the surface of the plane of reference, fringes of equal thickness can be seen through a reflector placed above them. The fringes constitute a contour map of the surface of the workpiece, enabling an optical polisher to see and to remove defects and departures from flatness.
The Twyman-Green interferometer, an adaptation of the Michelson instrument introduced in 1916 by the English electrical engineer Frank Twyman and the English chemist Arthur Green, is used for testing lenses and prisms. It uses a point source of monochromatic light at the focus of a quality lens. When the light is directed toward a perfect prism, it returns to a viewing point exactly as it was from the source, and a uniform field of illumination is seen. Local imperfections in the prism glass distort the wave front. When the light is directed toward a lens backed by a convex mirror, it passes through the lens, strikes the mirror, and retraces its path through the lens to a viewing point. Imperfections in the lens result in fringe distortions.